Unlocking the Past to Protect the Future: Forensic DNA and Historical Specimens Reveal the Origins of Smuggled...

Wildlife trafficking poses a major threat to biodiversity, particularly for species like parrots that are targeted in the pet trade. The Yellow-headed Parrot (Amazona oratrix), an endangered species native to Mexico and Central America, is frequently poached from unknown geographic locations, hindering the identification of smuggling sources and repatriation of any confiscated individuals. Here, we used population genomic tools to determine the source of 18 Yellow-headed Parrots confiscated as nestlings during a 2021 U.S.-Mexico border crossing into California. To build a genomic reference map, we extracted and sequenced DNA derived from the toe pads of historical museum specimens from across the range of three out of the four described A. oratrix subspecies. Genomic data revealed that the three sequenced subspecies correspond to unique ancestry groups and revealed a substantial genetic divide between Pacific and Atlantic coastal populations of A. o. oratrix. The smuggled parrots and parrots from the introduced population in southern California both consistently clustered with eastern populations of A. o. oratrix in genomic analyses. Concordantly, the predicted origin of these smuggled birds was eastern Mexico, based on the genomic reference map derived from historical samples. Kinship analysis reveals multiple cases of sibling-level relationships among the smuggled birds, suggesting that wild A. oratrix nests continue to be raided for the pet trade despite the species' endangered status. Overall, this study illustrates the power of using museum genomics to trace wildlife trafficking routes, inform conservation policy, and improve taxonomic resolution in species of conservation concern.