Effects of brain endurance training on physical and cognitive performance in athletes and physically active...

Brain endurance training (BET), a training approach that integrates cognitively demanding tasks with physical exercise, has received increasing attention in recent years. A growing body of evidence indicates that mental fatigue can impair athletic performance, executive functions, and sport-specific skills. However, a comprehensive synthesis of the overall effects of BET on both physical and cognitive performance is still lacking. Therefore, this systematic review aimed to evaluate the effects of BET on physical performance, sport-specific performance, and cognitive outcomes. A systematic search was conducted in PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus, Embase, the Cochrane Library, and Scopus. Controlled longitudinal intervention studies investigating the effects of BET interventions were included. In total, 13 controlled trials met the inclusion criteria. The intervention duration ranged from 4 to 12 weeks, with BET protocols typically combining cognitively demanding tasks (e.g., Stroop task, Go/No-Go task, AX-CPT task, and working memory paradigms) with endurance training, resistance training, or sport-specific training. The results indicate that BET consistently improves endurance-related outcomes, including time to exhaustion, time-trial performance, intermittent endurance, and sustained muscular endurance. However, these improvements are generally not accompanied by significant changes in traditional peripheral physiological markers such as maximal oxygen uptake, blood lactate concentration, or heart rate. In contrast, the effects of BET on maximal strength and repeated sprint ability appear limited or inconsistent. Improvements in sport-specific performance appear to be task-dependent and are more pronounced under conditions of mental fatigue. Most included studies reported beneficial effects of BET on cognitive performance, particularly in terms of faster reaction times and enhanced resistance to performance decrements under mentally fatiguing conditions. However, improvements in baseline cognitive performance under fresh conditions were less consistent across studies. Overall, BET may enhance endurance and cognitive performance primarily through central regulatory mechanisms rather than peripheral physiological adaptations by increasing individuals' tolerance to mental fatigue. However, given the heterogeneity of intervention protocols and the generally moderate methodological quality of the included studies, these findings should be interpreted with caution. Future research should further investigate dose-response relationships and the long-term adaptations associated with BET. Systematic review registation: https://inplasy.com/inplasy-2026-1-0050/, identifier INPLASY (registration number INPLASY202610050).