Examining the mixed-delivery system during pre-k expansion in North Carolina

State-funded pre-k programs have proliferated over the past several decades. Many states have relied on a mixed-delivery approach, wherein pre-k is provided across diverse childcare settings, including public schools, community-based organizations, and private childcare centers. Leveraging data from a natural experiment (2001-2010) of North Carolina's Pre-Kindergarten Program (NC Pre-K), we assessed county-level variation in the allocation of funded slots to different pre-k settings and the dispersion of slots within or across centers. We found that heterogeneity in the implementation of the mixed-delivery system had minimal effects on children's fifth-grade achievement, suggesting fairly consistent effects across the system. When small differences emerged, they suggested that NC Pre-K funding was most beneficial for student achievement when allocated to private for-profit and nonprofit centers.