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Chromatin Packaging

Chromatin Packaging

Each human somatic cell contains 6 billion base pairs of DNA. Each base pair is 0.34 nm long, meaning each diploid cell contains a staggering 2 meters of DNA. This long DNA strand is packed inside a nucleus measuring only 10-20 microns in diameter with the help of specialized DNA-binding proteins called histones. Together they form a compact DNA-protein complex called chromatin. The chromatin is further compacted into higher-order structures. The highest level of compaction is achieved during...

Chromatin Packaging

Chromatin Packaging

Each human somatic cell contains 6 billion base-pairs of DNA. Each base-pair is 0.34 nm long, which means that each diploid cell contains a staggering 2 meters of DNA. How is such a long DNA strand packed inside a nucleus measuring only 10 - 20 microns in diameter?
The chromatin
In combination with specialized DNA binding protein called Histones, the DNA double helix forms a compact DNA: protein complex called chromatin. The chromatin itself is further compacted into higher-order structures.

Chromatin Packaging

Chromatin Packaging

Each human somatic cell contains 6 billion base-pairs of DNA. Each base-pair is 0.34 nm long, which means that each diploid cell contains a staggering 2 meters of DNA. How is such a long DNA strand packed inside a nucleus measuring only 10 - 20 microns in diameter?
The chromatin
In combination with specialized DNA binding protein called Histones, the DNA double helix forms a compact DNA: protein complex called chromatin. The chromatin itself is further compacted into higher-order structures.

Nucleosome Remodeling

Nucleosome Remodeling

Nucleosomes are the basic units of chromatin compaction. Each nucleosome consists of the DNA bound tightly around a histone core, which makes the DNA inaccessible to DNA binding proteins such as DNA polymerase and RNA polymerase. Hence, the fundamental problem is to ensure access to DNA when appropriate, despite the compact and protective chromatin structure.
Nucleosome remodeling complex
Eukaryotic cells have specialized enzymes called ATP-dependent nucleosome remodeling enzymes. These enzymes...

Forces Acting on Chromosomes

Forces Acting on Chromosomes

During mitosis, chromosome movements occur through the interplay of multiple piconewton level forces. In prometaphase, these forces help in chromosome assembly or congression at the equatorial plane, eventually leading to their alignment at the metaphase plate. The forces acting on the chromosomes are space and time-dependent; therefore, they vary with the position of the chromosomes as the cell progresses through mitosis.
Microtubules and motor proteins exert two types of forces on...

Forces Acting on Chromosomes

Forces Acting on Chromosomes

During mitosis, chromosome movements occur through the interplay of multiple piconewton level forces. In prometaphase, these forces help in chromosome assembly or congression at the equatorial plane, eventually leading to their alignment at the metaphase plate. The forces acting on the chromosomes are space and time-dependent; therefore, they vary with the position of the chromosomes as the cell progresses through mitosis.
Microtubules and motor proteins exert two types of forces on...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 20, 2026

Mapping Absolute DNA Density in Cell Nuclei using Single-molecule Localization Microscopy

Mapping Absolute DNA Density in Cell Nuclei using Single-molecule Localization Microscopy

Published on: November 11, 2025

Active processes shape and move the genome and nucleoplasm.

Alexandra Zidovska¹

¹Center for Soft Matter Research, Department of Physics, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA.

Current Opinion in Genetics & Development

|June 18, 2026

Summary

The active cell nucleus exhibits emergent properties like genome organization and liquid phase separation due to non-equilibrium processes. Understanding these dynamics is key to human genome function.

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Imaging Replicative Domains in Ultrastructurally Preserved Chromatin by Electron Tomography

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Published on: May 20, 2022

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Last Updated: Jun 20, 2026

Mapping Absolute DNA Density in Cell Nuclei using Single-molecule Localization Microscopy

Mapping Absolute DNA Density in Cell Nuclei using Single-molecule Localization Microscopy

Published on: November 11, 2025

Imaging Replicative Domains in Ultrastructurally Preserved Chromatin by Electron Tomography

Imaging Replicative Domains in Ultrastructurally Preserved Chromatin by Electron Tomography

Published on: May 20, 2022

Area of Science:

Cell Biology
Non-equilibrium Physics
Genomics

Background:

The cell nucleus is a highly active environment, far from thermodynamic equilibrium.
Active processes include genome functions (transcription, replication) and nucleoplasm metabolism.
This activity drives emergent properties in nuclear components.

Purpose of the Study:

To explore the emergent properties of the genome and nucleoplasm arising from active nuclear processes.
To highlight the nucleus as a model system for non-equilibrium physics.
To connect nuclear dynamics to human genome function.

Main Methods:

The study is primarily theoretical, synthesizing existing research on nuclear activity.
It applies principles of non-equilibrium physics to biological systems.
Focuses on emergent phenomena in chromatin and nucleoplasm.

Main Results:

Active processes lead to genome compartmentalization and coherent chromatin motion.
Emergent rheology and non-equilibrium liquid-liquid phase separation are observed in the nucleoplasm.
These phenomena are consequences of the nucleus being a non-equilibrium system.

Conclusions:

The active nature of the nucleus is fundamental to its organization and dynamics.
Non-equilibrium physics provides a framework for understanding nuclear function.
Insights into these processes are crucial for understanding the human genome.