Forest management and species identity shape climate sensitivity and drought resilience in temperate mountain forests

Mountain temperate forests are being reshaped simultaneously by climate warming and contrasting management legacies, yet species-specific growth responses under these combined pressures remain poorly quantified. We analysed 3590 tree-ring series from silver fir (Abies alba Mill.), European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and Norway spruce (Picea abies L. Karst.) sampled in 915 plots that span 1477 m of elevation gradient across the Carpathian mountain range and paired managed versus unmanaged stands. Linear mixed-effects models were used to quantify species-specific growth responses to growing-season air temperature and climatic water balance while accounting for canopy position, region, and management. Drought resilience was further assessed using joint resistance-recovery (Rt-Rc) analyses across major regional drought years, complemented by tree-ring synchrony analyses to evaluate the strength of common climatic control. Species differed strongly in climate sensitivity and post-drought recovery strategies. Growth responses to warming ranged from positive to negative, depending on species and management context, whereas higher climatic water balance consistently enhanced growth. Climate signals were amplified in upper canopy layers and intensified along regional climatic gradients. Resistance-recovery analyses showed that most trees compensated for drought-induced growth reductions, but recovery efficiency depended on species, management regime, and canopy position. Unmanaged forests maintained stronger species differentiation in post-drought recovery, while management tended to homogenise responses. Our results demonstrate that warming, drought, and silviculture interact in contrasting ways across dominant Central European tree species, highlighting that species- and structure-specific management strategies may help sustain forest productivity and resilience under ongoing climate change.