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Related Concept Videos

Functional Brain Systems: Reticular Formation01:13

Functional Brain Systems: Reticular Formation

The reticular formation is a complex network of gray and white matter located within the brainstem extending from the medulla to the midbrain.
Within the reticular formation, there are several distinct nuclei that can be classified into three broad categories. The Raphe nuclei are located along the midline of the brainstem. They are primarily known for their role in synthesizing and releasing serotonin, a neurotransmitter involved in regulating mood, appetite, sleep, and circadian rhythms. The...
Autoregulation of Blood Flow01:17

Autoregulation of Blood Flow

Autoregulation mechanisms are characterized by their inherent capacity for self-regulation without necessitating specific nervous stimulation or endocrine control. These mechanisms facilitate the adjustment of blood flow and, therefore, perfusion specific to each tissue region. This self-regulation encompasses chemical signals and myogenic controls.
Chemical Signaling in Autoregulation
Chemical signaling operates at the precapillary sphincter level, inciting either contraction or relaxation.
Indirect Motor Pathways01:22

Indirect Motor Pathways

The indirect motor or extrapyramidal pathways originate in the brainstem, the lower portion of the brain that connects it to the spinal cord. They consist of several distinct tracts, each with specialized functions. The four main tracts of the indirect motor pathways are the vestibulospinal tract, the reticulospinal tract, the tectospinal tract, and the rubrospinal tract.
The vestibulospinal tract originates in the vestibular nuclei of the brainstem. The vestibular system detects changes in...
Neural Regulation01:37

Neural Regulation

Digestion begins with a cephalic phase that prepares the digestive system to receive food. When our brain processes visual or olfactory information about food, it triggers impulses in the cranial nerves innervating the salivary glands and stomach to prepare for food.
Association Areas of the Cortex01:21

Association Areas of the Cortex

Association areas are regions of the cerebral cortex that do not have a specific sensory or motor function. Instead, they integrate and interpret information from various sources to enable higher cognitive processes such as memory, learning, and decision-making. Some key association areas include the following:
Prefrontal Association Area: This area is located in the frontal lobe and is involved in planning, decision-making, and moderating social behavior. It connects with primary motor areas,...
Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex01:14

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

The cerebral cortex, the brain's outermost layer, is pivotal in processing complex cognitive tasks, emotions, and various sensory inputs and executing voluntary motor activities. This intricate structure is divided into three primary functional areas: the motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas.
Motor Areas
The motor areas located in the frontal lobe are central to controlling voluntary movements. This region is further subdivided into the primary motor cortex and the premotor cortex.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 20, 2026

Optimized Automated Analysis of Live Neuronal Mitochondria Homeostasis Modulation by Isoform-Specific Retinoic Acid Receptors
08:33

Optimized Automated Analysis of Live Neuronal Mitochondria Homeostasis Modulation by Isoform-Specific Retinoic Acid Receptors

Published on: July 28, 2023

A Retinoic Acid Autoregulatory Loop Governing Prefrontal-Motor Arealization.

Lin Yang, Mikihito Shibata, Saejeong Park

    Biorxiv : the Preprint Server for Biology
    |June 19, 2026
    PubMed
    Summary
    This summary is machine-generated.

    Researchers uncovered a gene regulatory loop involving MEIS2 and retinoic acid (RA) that shapes the developing frontal lobe. This mechanism helps define prefrontal cortex (PFC) and motor cortex (MC) areas, impacting neural circuits and potentially psychiatric disorders.

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    Analysis of Retinoic Acid-induced Neural Differentiation of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells in Two and Three-dimensional Embryoid Bodies
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    Analysis of Retinoic Acid-induced Neural Differentiation of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells in Two and Three-dimensional Embryoid Bodies

    Published on: April 22, 2017

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    Last Updated: Jun 20, 2026

    Optimized Automated Analysis of Live Neuronal Mitochondria Homeostasis Modulation by Isoform-Specific Retinoic Acid Receptors
    08:33

    Optimized Automated Analysis of Live Neuronal Mitochondria Homeostasis Modulation by Isoform-Specific Retinoic Acid Receptors

    Published on: July 28, 2023

    Analysis of Retinoic Acid-induced Neural Differentiation of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells in Two and Three-dimensional Embryoid Bodies
    09:04

    Analysis of Retinoic Acid-induced Neural Differentiation of Mouse Embryonic Stem Cells in Two and Three-dimensional Embryoid Bodies

    Published on: April 22, 2017

    Area of Science:

    • Neuroscience
    • Developmental Biology
    • Genetics

    Background:

    • The frontal lobe, including the prefrontal association cortex (PFC) and motor cortex (MC), is crucial for cognition and movement.
    • PFC expansion and MC posterior displacement are key primate brain evolutionary features.
    • Retinoic acid (RA) signaling regulates PFC development, but its spatial confinement and downstream genes are unclear.

    Purpose of the Study:

    • To define the RA-associated gene regulatory network (RA-GRN) in the developing human PFC.
    • To identify key regulators within this network and understand their role in cortical areal identity.
    • To investigate the link between RA signaling, gene networks, and the organization of the MC-PFC axis.

    Main Methods:

    • Analysis of RA-GRN in the developing human PFC.
    • Conditional deletion of the transcription factor gene *Meis2* in mouse cortical excitatory neurons.
    • Assessment of molecular and connectional features of prospective cortical territories.
    • Quantification of RA-synthesizing enzyme ALDH1A3 expression in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC).

    Main Results:

    • *MEIS2* was identified as a central hub in the RA-GRN of the developing PFC.
    • Loss of *Meis2* in mice led to partial respecification of PFC towards motor-like features.
    • MEIS2 loss reduced excitatory neurons expressing RA-synthesizing ALDH1A3 in the mPFC.
    • A conserved autoregulatory loop (RA → MEIS2 → ALDH1A3 → RA) was revealed, reinforcing PFC-enriched RA signaling.

    Conclusions:

    • Postmitotic neurons play a critical role in establishing and maintaining cortical areal identity.
    • The identified RA-GRN, with MEIS2 as a hub, organizes the MC-PFC axis through a conserved autoregulatory loop.
    • This mechanism links RA signaling to transcriptional identity, neural circuit formation, and potentially psychiatric disorders like ASD.