Review of Materials for Engineering and Design of 3D-Printed Electrochemical Sensors

Three-dimensional (3D) printing is increasingly used to build electrochemical sensing platforms because it allows researchers to create complex geometries, combine multiple functional components in a single device, and adjust sensor designs to suit specific analytical applications. In this context, fused filament fabrication (FFF) has gained increasing attention for its ability to use conductive thermoplastic filaments and its suitability for rapid design iterations. This review summarizes recent research on electrochemical sensors produced by FFF printing, emphasizing how factors such as printing parameters, filament composition, post-printing processes, and device design affect electrochemical performance. The discussion also addresses ongoing issues with reproducibility, surface accessibility, and inconsistencies in reported performance. In addition, the review considers a range of routinely employed approaches to enhance electrode performance, including mechanical, chemical, and electrochemical activation, and stresses the importance of achieving an appropriate trade-off between sensitivity, stability, and other practical constraints.