Mechanistic Insight Into Metal-Induced Toxicity: Oxidative Stress, Genomic Instability, and Carcinogenesis

Industrial activities over the past century have significantly increased human exposure to toxic metals. This review examines the toxic mechanisms of arsenic, chromium, cadmium, lead, and mercury. Exposure to these metals, whether acute or chronic, can disrupt cellular balance by interfering with signaling pathways, impacting essential processes like cell growth, proliferation, survival, metabolism, and programmed cell death (apoptosis). Their bioaccumulation can lead to toxic effects across multiple tissues and organ systems. The toxicological actions of these metals include the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), weakening of antioxidant defenses, enzyme inactivation, and oxidative stress. This review provides a comprehensive and integrated overview of the molecular and physiological mechanisms involved in metal toxicity, with special focus on their contribution to carcinogenesis and the progression of systemic diseases. Chromium, cadmium, and arsenic contribute to genomic instability, with oxidative stress-induced DNA damage and impaired DNA repair mechanisms playing a key role in their carcinogenic potential.