Exploring the antiviral and antibacterial properties of zeolites across various industry applications

Metal-exchanged zeolites have emerged as versatile platforms for antimicrobial and antiviral applications due to their tunable pore architecture, cation exchange capacity (CEC), and ability to provide controlled metal ion release. This review critically evaluates the antibacterial and antiviral performance of silver-, copper-, and zinc-loaded natural and synthetic zeolites, with emphasis on structure-activity relationships and translational applicability. Across reported studies, metal-exchanged zeolites frequently achieve > 99% bacterial reduction or > 3-5 log₁₀ viral inactivation, depending on framework type, metal species, loading level, and contact time. Antibacterial activity is primarily associated with membrane disruption, reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and intracellular interference, whereas antiviral performance depends on surface adsorption, envelope destabilization, and controlled ion diffusion into virions. Compared with unmodified carriers and polymer-only matrices, metal-loaded inorganic carriers reported in the literature achieve > 99% microbial inhibition, depending on metal type, loading level, and exposure time. Natural zeolites such as clinoptilolite provide cost advantages and inherent adsorption properties but exhibit variability in composition and ion-exchange behavior. Synthetic zeolites (e.g., FAU, LTA, X, Y) offer tunable pore size, improved metal retention, and optimized release kinetics, enabling application-specific design. However, performance is strongly influenced by ion leaching behavior, cytotoxicity thresholds, environmental accumulation, and regulatory constraints in biomedical, food, textile, and water-treatment applications. Antimicrobial efficacy is governed not solely by metal identity but by the interplay between zeolite framework composition, Si/Al ratio, particle size, and ion-release dynamics. Future development requires standardized leaching assessment, long-term toxicological evaluation, and techno-economic analysis to support safe and scalable implementation.