Differentiated instruction in Indonesian primary school physical education: a mixed-methods study

Despite the growing global emphasis on differentiated instruction, empirical evidence regarding its implementation in primary school physical education within developing-country contexts remains limited. In Indonesia, differentiated instruction has been promoted through the Merdeka Curriculum; however, its practical implementation across diverse socio-cultural and geographical settings has not been comprehensively examined. This study investigates teachers' understanding, instructional planning, implementation practices, and evaluation of differentiated instruction in Indonesian primary school physical education, while identifying the structural and contextual factors shaping its enactment. A sequential explanatory mixed-methods design was employed. Quantitative data were collected from 496 physical education teachers across seven Indonesian regions using a Likert-scale questionnaire analysed with SPSS version 25. The qualitative phase involved semi-structured interviews with 14 teachers selected through maximum variation sampling. Qualitative data were analysed thematically to enrich the interpretation of quantitative findings. The findings indicate that differentiated instruction remains unevenly implemented across regions. Approximately 41% of teachers demonstrated only moderate conceptual understanding, while 43% exhibited limited competence in differentiated lesson planning. Furthermore, 38% identified inadequate facilities and instructional resources as major barriers, and 78% reported that assessment practices remained only moderately adaptive. Qualitative findings further revealed pronounced regional disparities, limited professional development opportunities, uneven policy enactment, and restricted access to assessment tools. This study offers a novel contribution by extending Tomlinson's differentiated instruction framework into the underexplored context of primary school physical education in a developing country characterised by significant socio-cultural and geographical diversity. The findings demonstrate that the effectiveness of differentiated instruction is strongly shaped by contextual realities, institutional support, and regional inequalities. The study highlights the need for context-responsive teacher education, differentiated assessment guidelines, and collaborative professional support systems to strengthen inclusive and adaptive pedagogical practices.