Music and animal welfare: from behavioral and physiological effects to potential applications in animal husbandry

Music, as a complex auditory stimulus, has become a significant topic of interdisciplinary research due to its diverse impacts and underlying mechanisms. Numerous studies demonstrate that music not only profoundly affects human physiological and psychological well-being, but also has important effects on animal behavior and physiology. This review synthesizes previous research and explores the scientific foundations of interactions between music and animals across five key dimensions. Given the heterogeneity of species and interventions, findings were synthesized narratively. First, it explores the neurological basis of animal music perception from a neurobiological perspective, including the evolutionary traits of auditory systems, interspecies differences in music perception, and the neural pathways through which musical stimuli are transmitted within animal nervous systems. Second, using comparative studies across multiple species, it uncovers the distinct ways in which various animals perceive musical elements-such as tempo, rhythm, and pitch-and the behavioral responses they exhibit. Some species even demonstrate rudimentary musical creativity. Third, the review analyzes the positive effects of music on animal neural and endocrine functions, immune function, and welfare, particularly its role in reducing stress responses, improving emotional states, and enhancing quality of life. Finally, this review summarizes recent advances in studies using fish to investigate the effects of music on animals, highlights the broad potential of fish as experimental models in this research field, and provides representative examples illustrating how such findings may contribute to future improvements in animal welfare and the efficiency of aquaculture practices. Moreover, research on music perception in fish may provide indispensable insights into the evolutionary origins and biological foundations of musical perception in vertebrates.