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Related Concept Videos

Exon Recombination02:32

Exon Recombination

The evolution of new genes is critical for speciation. Exon recombination, also known as exon shuffling or domain shuffling, is an important means of new gene formation. It is observed across vertebrates, invertebrates, and in some plants such as potatoes and sunflowers. During exon recombination, exons from the same or different genes recombine and produce new exon-intron combinations, which might evolve into new genes. 
Exon shuffling follows “splice frame rules.” Each exon has three reading...
Gene Conversion02:08

Gene Conversion

Other than maintaining genome stability via DNA repair, homologous recombination plays an important role in diversifying the genome. In fact, the recombination of sequences forms the molecular basis of genomic evolution. Random and non-random permutations of genomic sequences create a library of new amalgamated sequences. These newly formed genomes can determine the fitness and survival of cells. In bacteria, homologous and non-homologous types of recombination lead to the evolution of new...
Gene Conversion02:08

Gene Conversion

Other than maintaining genome stability via DNA repair, homologous recombination plays an important role in diversifying the genome. In fact, the recombination of sequences forms the molecular basis of genomic evolution. Random and non-random permutations of genomic sequences create a library of new amalgamated sequences. These newly formed genomes can determine the fitness and survival of cells. In bacteria, homologous and non-homologous types of recombination lead to the evolution of new...
Gene Evolution - Fast or Slow?02:05

Gene Evolution - Fast or Slow?

The genomes of eukaryotes are punctuated by long stretches of sequence which do not code for proteins or RNAs. Although some of these regions do contain crucial regulatory sequences, the vast majority of this DNA serves no known function. Typically, these regions of the genome are the ones in which the fastest change, in evolutionary terms, is observed, because there is typically little to no selection pressure acting on these regions to preserve their sequences.
In contrast, regions which code...
Gene Evolution - Fast or Slow?02:05

Gene Evolution - Fast or Slow?

The genomes of eukaryotes are punctuated by long stretches of sequence which do not code for proteins or RNAs. Although some of these regions do contain crucial regulatory sequences, the vast majority of this DNA serves no known function. Typically, these regions of the genome are the ones in which the fastest change, in evolutionary terms, is observed, because there is typically little to no selection pressure acting on these regions to preserve their sequences.
In contrast, regions which code...
Gene Duplication and Divergence02:37

Gene Duplication and Divergence

The seminal work of Ohno in 1970 popularized the idea of gene duplication and divergence. DNA sequence comparison studies reveal that a large portion of the genes in bacteria, archaebacteria, and eukaryotes was  generated by gene duplication and divergence, indicating its critical role in evolution.
The duplicated copies of the gene are called Paralogs. Paralogs with similar sequences and functions form a gene family. Across several species, a large number of gene families are characterized.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 24, 2026

Following the Dynamics of Structural Variants in Experimentally Evolved Populations
04:52

Following the Dynamics of Structural Variants in Experimentally Evolved Populations

Published on: February 3, 2023

Probing the limits of genetic recoding using multi-omics-guided evolution.

Akos Nyerges1, Anush Chiappino-Pepe2, Bogdan Budnik3

  • 1Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. akos_nyerges@hms.harvard.edu.

Nature Communications
|June 22, 2026
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Synthetic biology enables engineering the genetic code for virus resistance and novel biosynthesis. However, synonymous codon replacement (recoding) can be lethal, impacting organism fitness, which this study investigates.

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Procedure for Adaptive Laboratory Evolution of Microorganisms Using a Chemostat
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Procedure for Adaptive Laboratory Evolution of Microorganisms Using a Chemostat

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Last Updated: Jun 24, 2026

Following the Dynamics of Structural Variants in Experimentally Evolved Populations
04:52

Following the Dynamics of Structural Variants in Experimentally Evolved Populations

Published on: February 3, 2023

Procedure for Adaptive Laboratory Evolution of Microorganisms Using a Chemostat
06:03

Procedure for Adaptive Laboratory Evolution of Microorganisms Using a Chemostat

Published on: September 20, 2016

Area of Science:

  • Synthetic biology
  • Genomics
  • Molecular biology

Background:

  • Engineering the genetic code via synonymous codon replacement (recoding) offers potential for virus resistance and unnatural biopolymer synthesis.
  • Recoding is often lethal, and its impact on organism fitness is not well understood.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the fitness consequences of recoding the genetic code in synthetic Escherichia coli genomes.
  • To explore the effects of recoding on genome stability, gene expression, and overall organism fitness.

Main Methods:

  • Genome synthesis and construction of partially recoded *Escherichia coli* strains.
  • Multi-omics analyses (genome, transcriptome, translatome, proteome) for comprehensive profiling.
  • Directed evolution and multi-omics-guided strategies to restore fitness.

Main Results:

  • Construction of synthetic *E. coli* with up to 45.8% recoded genome using a 57-codon code.
  • Identification of widespread defects, including unassigned codons, due to recoding.
  • Multi-omics data revealed recoding-induced transcriptional and translational changes causing fitness defects across numerous conditions.

Conclusions:

  • Recoding the genetic code significantly impacts cellular processes and organism fitness.
  • Multi-omics profiling is crucial for understanding and mitigating recoding-induced defects.
  • A multi-omics-guided evolution strategy can rapidly restore fitness in recoded organisms, enabling radical genome engineering.