Teachers' Readiness and Collective Efficacy for Autism Inclusion: Insights From Oman and Egypt

This study examined how teachers' perceptions of autism inclusion, Collective Efficacy, and national context relate to readiness for autism-inclusive teaching in mainstream schools in Egypt and Oman. Guided by social cognitive theory, readiness was conceptualized in two dimensions: Professional Knowledge and affective readiness. Survey data were collected from 436 teachers using validated Arabic versions of established measures of inclusive perceptions, teacher readiness, and Collective Efficacy. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that demographic characteristics explained limited variance, and teaching experience was not a significant predictor. Teachers' perceptions made the largest incremental contribution to both readiness outcomes. The final models explained substantial variance in Professional Knowledge (R² = .455) and affective readiness (R² = .448). Collective Efficacy added explanatory power and moderated selected relationships: It strengthened the association between positive Sentiments and Professional Knowledge, the association between Attitudes and affective readiness, and intensified the negative association between Concerns and affective readiness. Cross-national comparisons showed higher Professional Knowledge and affective readiness among teachers in Oman. National context moderated selected pathways predicting affective readiness, but not Professional Knowledge. Overall, the findings highlight the combined role of teacher beliefs, Collective Efficacy, and national context in shaping readiness for autism-inclusive classrooms.Lay AbstractAs more autistic students are educated in mainstream classrooms, teachers play a crucial role in making inclusion successful. This study explored what shapes teachers' readiness to teach autistic students in schools in Egypt and Oman. Readiness was considered in two ways: teachers' Professional Knowledge about how to support autistic students and their emotional and motivational readiness to include them in everyday classroom activities. A total of 436 teachers completed questionnaires about their views on autism inclusion, their Concerns and Attitudes, their sense of teamwork within their schools, and how ready they felt to teach autistic students. The results showed that teachers' personal beliefs about inclusion were the strongest predictors of readiness. Teachers who reported more positive attitudes and supportive Sentiments toward inclusion also reported higher levels of Professional Knowledge and affective readiness. In contrast, teachers who reported stronger Concerns, such as worries about classroom demands, behavior management, or limited resources, tended to report lower readiness to support autistic students. Background characteristics, such as years of teaching experience, were only weakly related to readiness. The school environment also played an important role. Teachers who believed that staff in their school could work together effectively felt more capable and prepared to include autistic students. However, when Concerns about inclusion were strong, a shared sense of school capability did not necessarily protect teachers' affective readiness; instead, Concerns became more strongly linked to lower affective readiness. In some cases, when Concerns about inclusion were widely shared but not addressed, they became more strongly linked to lower affective readiness. Differences between the two countries were also observed. Teachers in Oman generally reported higher Professional Knowledge and affective readiness than teachers in Egypt. In addition, the way teachers' Sentiments and attitudes influenced affective readiness differed across the two contexts, while the effect of Concerns on affective readiness did not significantly differ between Egypt and Oman. Overall, the findings suggest that improving autism inclusion may depend less on teachers' years of experience and more on strengthening positive beliefs about inclusion, addressing practical Concerns, and fostering supportive collaboration within schools.