A family-based risk assessment of PBDE exposure using a multi-pathway approach: Integrating diet, dust, air and serum...

A family-based, multi-matrix exposure assessment for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) was implemented to allow comparison of intake pathways and differentiation between shared household exposure and individual-level determinants. The study comprised 124 participants from 48 South Korean households (48 adolescents, 48 mothers and 28 fathers). PBDEs were analysed in indoor air and dust samples per household, three-day whole-meal composite dietary samples and serum per individual, with sampling conducted between August 2020 and January 2021. Dietary intake was the dominant intake pathway, contributing a median of 85.3% of total ∑PBDE estimated daily intake (EDI), followed by dust ingestion (11.9%), air inhalation (1.06%), and dermal absorption (0.026%). Median total EDIs were highest for adolescents (4940 pg/kg body weight/day), followed by fathers (3560 pg/kg bw/day) and mothers (2970 pg/kg bw/day), without significant differences. Exposure variability was primarily individual rather than family-based, with family membership explaining approximately 19% of variability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.19). Within families, the median ratio between the highest and lowest exposed individuals was 3.8 and exceeded 10 in the upper quartile. Total EDIs were dominated by higher-brominated congeners, particularly BDE-209, whereas serum profiles showed lower representation of BDE-209, reflecting the differences between short-term intake and longer-term accumulation. Mixture risk characterization using the European Food Safety Authority margin of exposure framework suggested limited population-level health concern.