Advances in electrochemical immunosensors for tuberculosis detection: a systematic review

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a major global health challenge, emphasizing the need for rapid and reliable diagnostic tools. As technologies move toward simplicity, portability, and real-time analysis, electrochemical biosensors have emerged as promising solutions for effective and sustainable TB detection. This systematic review highlights recent progress in electrochemical immunosensors for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb). A comprehensive search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science identified 19 relevant studies targeting antigens such as Ag85, ESAT-6, CFP-10, MPT64, LAM, and Hsp16, with one study detecting anti-LAM antibodies. Electrode modifiers were categorized into metallic nanoparticles, conductive polymers, carbon-based nanocomposites, and ternary hybrids. Although carbon-based nanomaterials offer excellent conductivity and biocompatibility, their use in TB immunosensors remains limited. A growing trend toward label-free formats reflects the need for point-of-care compatibility. Advances in nanomaterials have improved sensor performance, but further research using next-generation modifiers and nanozymes is needed to enhance sensitivity and reproducibility.