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Related Concept Videos

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle01:22

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

The ovarian cycle regulates endometrial changes throughout a single menstrual cycle via the coordinated action of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotrophins.
At puberty, GnRH begins a pulsatile release pattern, which triggers the anterior pituitary gland to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The frequency and amplitude of GnRH pulses vary across the menstrual cycle, with faster pulses favoring LH release and slower pulses favoring FSH release.
Hormonal Regulation of Blood Pressure01:17

Hormonal Regulation of Blood Pressure

Endocrinal or hormonal intervention in the cardiovascular system is predominantly exerted by the catecholamines - epinephrine and norepinephrine, as well as a slew of hormones that interact with renal function to modulate blood volume.
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
The adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine, catecholamines that enhance and extend the sympathetic or "fight or flight" physiological response. These hormones escalate heart rate and the force of contraction while...
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Atherosclerosis III: Management

Management of atherosclerosis involves an integrated strategy encompassing pharmacological treatment, surgical interventions, lifestyle changes, and nutrition therapy to address the multifactorial nature of the disease.Pharmacological TherapyA cornerstone of atherosclerosis management is the use of pharmacological agents. Statins, such as atorvastatin, are pivotal in inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase, an enzyme that catalyzes an initial step in cholesterol synthesis in the liver. This reduction in...
Menopause01:28

Menopause

Menopause, a natural biological process marking the end of a woman's fertility, typically occurs between the fifth and sixth decade of life. This phase is characterized by the exhaustion of the ovarian follicle pool, leading to less responsive ovaries despite the high levels of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The consequential decrease in estrogen production results in symptoms like hot flashes, heavy sweating, headaches, hair loss, muscle pains, vaginal...
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Acute Coronary Syndrome II: Pathophysiology and Clinical Manifestations

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jun 26, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause
06:18

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause

Published on: August 13, 2019

Menopausal Hormone Therapy and Cardiovascular Risk: Current Evidence and Clinical Implications.

Catalin M Buzduga1, Amelian M Bobu1, Roxana Covali1

  • 1Faculty of Medicine, Grigore T. Popa University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, 700115 Iasi, Romania.

Medical Sciences (Basel, Switzerland)
|June 25, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) does not prevent cardiovascular disease. Younger women initiating MHT early post-menopause, especially with transdermal estrogen, may have the lowest risk for symptom relief and osteoporosis prevention.

Keywords:
cardiovascular diseasecoronary heart diseasemenopausal hormone therapytiming hypothesisvenous thromboembolism

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: Jun 26, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause
06:18

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause

Published on: August 13, 2019

Area of Science:

  • Cardiovascular Health
  • Hormone Therapy Research
  • Menopause Management

Background:

  • Menopausal hormone therapy (MHT) effectively treats vasomotor symptoms.
  • Cardiovascular safety of MHT is complex, depending on timing, formulation, and administration route.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review current evidence on the cardiovascular safety of MHT.
  • To evaluate the impact of MHT timing, formulation, and route on cardiovascular outcomes.

Main Methods:

  • Narrative review of major randomized trials (WHI, HERS, ELITE, DOPS) and observational studies.
  • Inclusion of mechanistic data on vascular and metabolic effects of MHT.

Main Results:

  • Randomized trials show no cardiovascular benefit; some indicate increased risks of coronary events, stroke, and VTE.
  • Early MHT initiation may be neutral/favorable ('timing hypothesis'), while late initiation is adverse.
  • Oral estrogen poses higher risks than transdermal estrogen; data on AFib/HF are limited.

Conclusions:

  • MHT is not recommended for cardiovascular disease prevention.
  • Younger women initiating MHT early post-menopause, particularly with transdermal estrogen, may benefit most with lowest risk.
  • MHT decisions require cardiovascular risk assessment, focusing on symptom relief and osteoporosis prevention.