Human Exposure Pathways to Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFASs)-A Comprehensive Review of Sources,
Andrzej R Reindl1, Jakub A Zduńczuk1
1Department of Environmental Toxicology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Medical University of Gdansk, 80-210 Gdansk, Poland.
Toxics
|June 25, 2026
Summary
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) pose significant public health and environmental risks due to their persistent nature. Current regulations struggle to address complex PFAS toxicity data and mixture exposures, necessitating a shift towards holistic, class-based approaches.
Area of Science:
- Environmental Chemistry
- Toxicology
- Public Health Policy
Background:
- Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are globally pervasive due to the stable carbon-fluorine bond, posing significant environmental and health challenges.
- Existing knowledge on PFAS includes their properties, exposure routes, and toxicological effects, but regulatory frameworks are fragmented and struggle to keep pace with evolving scientific data.
Purpose of the Study:
- To review and synthesize current knowledge on PFAS, focusing on physicochemical properties, exposure pathways, and toxicological outcomes.
- To evaluate the efficacy of global regulatory frameworks in addressing PFAS pollution and health risks.
- To identify contradictions between toxicological data and regulatory approaches and propose future directions.
Main Methods:
- Comprehensive literature review of physicochemical properties, exposure pathways, and toxicological outcomes of PFAS.
- Critical analysis of epidemiological data, particularly concerning cancer links and systemic toxicities.
- Evaluation of current international regulatory frameworks and their effectiveness against PFAS pollution.
- Assessment of the impact of industrial transitions to short-chain PFAS substitutes.
Main Results:
- PFAS exhibit exceptional stability, leading to widespread environmental contamination and public health concerns.
- Evidence increasingly points to systemic toxicities (hepatotoxicity, immunotoxicity, maternal-fetal effects) from mixture co-exposures and sex-specific metabolism, rather than solely direct carcinogenicity.
- Short-chain PFAS substitutes are highly mobile and resistant to conventional treatment, exacerbating the crisis.
- Current substance-by-substance regulations are inadequate for mitigating real-world PFAS pollution trends.
Conclusions:
- A paradigm shift is needed from substance-specific regulations to holistic, class-based global policies for PFAS.
- Urgent development and implementation of advanced destructive remediation technologies are required to address the persistent C-F bond.
- Future strategies must incorporate mixture modeling and account for complex epidemiological findings and sex-specific toxicities.
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