Enhanced Bioactivities of Fermented Rehmannia glutinosa via Catalpol-Mediated GLP-1R Signaling

Fermentation is widely used to enhance the bioactivity of herbal phytochemicals through microbial bioconversion. Rehmannia glutinosa contains catalpol, an iridoid glycoside with metabolic and immunomodulatory potential; however, its efficacy in the unfermented form is limited. This study investigated whether fermentation enhances catalpol production and improves metabolic and immune-regulating functions via glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) signaling. Rehmannia glutinosa extract was fermented under optimized conditions, and catalpol and iridoid precursor levels were quantified to assess bioconversion efficiency. Biological effects were evaluated in intestinal epithelial cells, macrophages, and an Artemia model, focusing on glucose transport, GLP-1 secretion, dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) expression, mucosal defense, and GLP-1R/protein kinase A/cAMP response element-binding protein (PKA/CREB) signaling. Fermentation significantly increased catalpol content while reducing iridoid precursors. The fermented extract suppressed intestinal glucose absorption by downregulating sodium-glucose cotransporter 1 (SGLT1) and glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2). It also enhanced GLP-1 secretion and reduced DPP-4 expression, leading to activation of GLP-1R/PKA/CREB signaling. This activation increased mucin 2 (MUC2) expression and promoted anti-inflammatory.