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Fresh-State Characteristics of Geopolymer Mortars for 3D Printing: Mix Design, Rheology and Early-Age Performance.

İbrahim Türkmen^1,2, Enes Ekinci², Fatih Kantarci²

¹Department of Architectural Engineering, College of Engineering and Advanced Computing, Alfaisal University, Riyadh 11533, Saudi Arabia.

|June 26, 2026

Summary

This review explores how precursor chemistry, mix design, and rheology impact 3D-printed geopolymer mortar printability. Understanding these factors is key for developing robust and sustainable construction materials.

Keywords:

3D concrete printing geopolymer mortar rheology workability

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Area of Science:

Materials Science
Construction Engineering
Chemical Engineering

Background:

Extrusion-based 3D printing of geopolymer mortars is promising for construction.
Successful application hinges on precursor chemistry, activator composition, mixture proportions, and fresh-state behavior.
Fresh-state behavior is sensitive to time-dependent structural build-up.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the relationships among mix design, geopolymerization chemistry, rheological properties, and printability requirements for 3D-printed geopolymer mortars.
To emphasize the effects of various components on material properties and printability.
To identify challenges and propose future research directions.

Main Methods:

Literature review focusing on mix design, geopolymerization chemistry, and rheological properties.
Analysis of factors influencing flowability, yield stress, viscosity, extrudability, buildability, shape retention, and interlayer bonding.
Evaluation of geopolymerization kinetics, early-age performance, and structural stability.

Main Results:

Precursor type, activator characteristics, liquid-to-solid ratio, additives, and fibers significantly affect rheological properties and printability.
Geopolymerization kinetics dictate the evolution of fresh-state properties, printable time window, and transition to structural stability.
Early-age performance, including setting behavior and green strength, is crucial for layer-interface integrity.

Conclusions:

Developing printable and sustainable geopolymer mortar systems requires a deep understanding of the interplay between material design and process parameters.
Standardized testing methods and improved comparability among studies are needed.
Future research should focus on addressing current challenges to advance additive manufacturing in construction.