Machine-embroidered textile electrodes: parametric engineering for lab-on-glove electrochemical pesticide detection

Wearable lab-on-glove systems offer the possibility of in situ electrochemical analysis for non-destructive detection by enabling direct human-surface interaction. However, scalable fabrication and mechanistic understanding of textile electrode architectures remain underdeveloped. Here, we establish computerised embroidery as a scalable electrochemical microfabrication strategy and demonstrate its integration into a wearable glove-based pesticide-sensing platform. Using a multi-needle embroidery system, the influence of fabrication parameters on electrochemical behaviour was studied, statistically analysed, and machine-learning-assisted feature analysis was employed to elucidate an electrochemical performance framework based on the embroidery parameters. The optimised embroidered textile-based biosensor was functionalised and validated for the detection of monocrotophos via inhibition-based electrochemical sensing. Electrochemical performance characterisation proved that the fabricated biosensor exhibited high repeatability, reusability and reproducibility. It also showed selective and sensitive detection of monocrotophos over the range of 5-100 μg L^-1, with a detection limit of 1.55 μg L^-1. The developed sensor also showed excellent storage stability over 90 days, retaining 99% of its initial response. Thus, the developed lab-on-glove platform enables in situ detection while integrating manufacturing scalability, structural control, and mechanistic electrochemical insight. This work redefines computerised embroidery as a programmable electrochemical microfabrication strategy and provides design principles for next-generation wearable textile biosensors.