Recent advances in electrochemical sensing using tungsten oxide (WO₃) nanostructures: A comprehensive review

Nanostructured tungsten oxide (WO₃) has emerged as a promising material for electrochemical sensing due to its high surface area, strong electrocatalytic activity, and efficient charge-transfer properties. This review presents recent advances in WO₃-based nanocomposites, emphasizing their synthesis strategies, structural engineering, and performance in electrochemical sensing applications. The integration of WO₃ with various functional nanomaterials has significantly enhanced sensitivity, selectivity, and detection limits for a wide range of chemical and biological analytes. Particular attention is given to the role of morphology, surface properties, and composite design in improving sensing efficiency. Furthermore, key challenges, including limited electrical conductivity, wide bandgap effects, and stability concerns, are critically discussed, along with comparisons to emerging sensing materials. Finally, future perspectives and research directions are outlined to support the development of robust, reliable, and high-performance WO₃-based electrochemical sensors for environmental and biomedical applications.