A Multiepitope Intranasal Adenoviral Vaccine Induces Robust Mucosal Immunity and Protection against SARS‑CoV‑2

Vaccination has been central to mitigating the COVID-19 pandemic; however, the continual emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern (VOCs) has reduced the effectiveness of current intramuscular vaccines that primarily target the Spike (S) protein. Although updated formulations are periodically introduced, there remains a critical need for next-generation vaccine platforms capable of inducing broad, variant-independent protection. Here we evaluate a heterologous intranasal (i.n.) prime-boost vaccination strategy using bovine adenoviral (BAd) and chimpanzee adenoviral (ChAd) vectors expressing the S1 subunit in combination with either full-length membrane (M) and nucleocapsid (N) proteins (Ad-S1 + N + M) or multiepitope constructs derived from M and N (Ad-S1 + Epi/N + Epi/M). The constructs were incorporated with the autophagy-inducing peptide C5 (AIP-C5) to enhance antigen-specific T-cell responses.

In BALB/c mice, Ad-S1 + Epi/N + Epi/M vaccination induced robust S1-specific immunity while simultaneously inducing strong N- and M-specific humoral and cellular responses that were comparable to or greater than those induced by Ad-S1 + N + M. All S1-containing formulations generated high neutralizing antibody titers (~ 3.8 log₁₀) against Omicron B.1.1.529 and BA.2.86 variants, although titers against the ancestral Wuhan strain were approximately one log₁₀ lower. In K18-hACE2 mice, i.n. immunization with S1-expressing vectors provided near-complete protection against BA.2.86 challenge, with undetectable lung viral titers and viral genome copies.

An i.n. multiepitope adenoviral vaccine incorporating conserved SARS-CoV-2 antigens induces robust mucosal, humoral, and cellular immune responses and confers significant protection following SARS-CoV-2 challenge.