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Mind wandering during first- and foreign-language reading
Marina Klimovich1, Jean-François Rouet2, Tobias Richter3
1University of Würzburg, Department of Psychology IV, Röntgenring 10, 97070, Würzburg, Germany. marina.klimovich@uni-wuerzburg.de.
Psychonomic Bulletin & Review
|July 1, 2026
Summary
Vocabulary differences impact mind wandering during foreign language (L2) reading. Lower L2 vocabulary leads to more unintentional mind wandering, especially when comprehension is difficult, suggesting cognitive overload.
Area of Science:
- Cognitive Psychology
- Second Language Acquisition
- Psycholinguistics
Background:
- Individual differences in vocabulary knowledge are crucial for reading comprehension.
- Mind wandering, or task-unrelated thoughts, can disrupt cognitive processes during reading.
- The relationship between vocabulary, mind wandering, and reading in a first language (L1) versus a foreign language (L2) requires further investigation.
Purpose of the Study:
- To investigate how individual differences in vocabulary knowledge influence mind wandering during L1 and L2 reading.
- To examine the role of perceived reading difficulty and comprehension in L1-L2 mind wandering differences.
- To explore whether the intentionality of mind wandering differs between L1 and L2 reading based on task demands.
Main Methods:
- Four studies were conducted with varying L1/L2 pairings (German/English, French/English, English/German, German/French).
- Participants completed measures of mind-wandering frequency, perceived reading difficulty, comprehension, and vocabulary knowledge.
- Studies 2-4 additionally assessed the intentionality of mind wandering during L1 and L2 reading.
Main Results:
- Participants with lower L2 vocabulary knowledge exhibited higher frequencies of mind wandering during L2 compared to L1 reading.
- When L2 vocabulary knowledge impaired comprehension, unintentional mind wandering increased in L2 reading.
- When L2 vocabulary supported comprehension, intentional mind wandering increased in L2 reading, mediated by perceived difficulty.
Conclusions:
- Vocabulary knowledge significantly influences mind wandering patterns in L2 reading, particularly when comprehension is challenged.
- The type of mind wandering (intentional vs. unintentional) is sensitive to task demands and cognitive resources available during L2 reading.
- Learners may intentionally disengage from L2 reading when the cognitive effort outweighs perceived benefits, leading to more intentional mind wandering.
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