Sb-based metal oxide and sulfide anode materials for alkali-ion batteries

Sustainable advanced battery technologies with high energy density, excellent power density, superior security, long cycle life, and low cost are increasingly in demand. This demand has accelerated research and development of advanced lithium-ion battery (LIBs) electrode materials, as well as the advancement of alternative electrochemical energy storage technologies based on abundant alkali metal resources, most notably sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) and potassium-ion batteries (KIBs). Antimony-based oxides (Sb₂O₃) and sulfides (Sb₂S₃) are popular anode materials due to their high theoretical capacity and low cost. Unfortunately, their actual utilization in alkali-ion batteries is hindered by inherent limitations, including low conductivity, volume expansion, and the inability to release considerable reversible capacity due to inadequate conversion-alloying reactions. Over the last decade, researchers have made major attempts to tackle these issues. This study reviews the recent advances in Sb₂O₃- and Sb₂S₃-based anodes for alkali-ion batteries (LIBs, SIBs, and KIBs), while also evaluating the bottlenecks hindering their full deployment. This article offers an overview of energy storage methods and synthesis strategies for Sb₂O₃ and Sb₂S₃ materials, with a focus on overcoming the concerns mentioned above. The paper discusses the problems and potential for developing Sb₂O₃ and Sb₂S₃-based anode materials, and proposes optimization methodologies. It seeks to provide insights for researchers working on next-generation improved anode materials.