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Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...

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Dissection, MicroCT Scanning and Morphometric Analyses of the Baculum

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Three-Dimensional Distal Humerus Morphometry Using an Axis-Constrained Reference Framework: Sexual Dimorphism and

Panagiotis K Vasileiou¹, Alexandros Samolis¹, Dimitra Kalogirou²

¹Department of Anatomy, School of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece.

Annals of Anatomy = Anatomischer Anzeiger : Official Organ of the Anatomische Gesellschaft

|July 7, 2026

Summary

Male and female distal humerus (DH) dimensions differ significantly in size but not side, with epicondylar width (EPW) serving as a reliable indicator of overall joint size. This study introduces a novel CT analysis framework for DH morphology.

Keywords:

Distal humerus geometric scaling sexual dimorphism side-related differences three-dimensional morphometry

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Area of Science:

Orthopedic surgery
Human anatomy
Biomechanical engineering

Background:

Distal humerus (DH) morphology is crucial for joint function and implant design.
Understanding sex and side variations in DH anatomy is essential for personalized medicine.
Existing morphometric analyses often lack standardized reference frameworks, leading to variability.

Purpose of the Study:

To conduct a 3D computed tomography (3DCT) morphometric analysis of the distal humerus (DH).
To explore sex differences, side variation, and geometric scaling using a custom, axis-constrained reference framework.
To evaluate the utility of epicondylar width (EPW) as a global scale for DH dimensions.

Main Methods:

Reconstruction of 66 unpaired adult distal humeri from CT data.
Automated measurements using Python scripts for reduced variability.
Development of a distal reference axis (C-line) for consistent landmark placement and measurements (width, depth, height).
Statistical analysis including t-tests, Pearson correlation, and linear regression; assessment of intraobserver reliability.

Main Results:

Significant sex differences in absolute DH dimensions, with males exhibiting larger measurements (p < 0.001).
Normalized dimensions showed reduced sex-related differences, indicating size-dependent variation.
No significant side-related differences were found after multiple comparison correction.
Strong correlations between depth and height measurements, and between EPW and joint dimensions (e.g., trochlear width).
EPW was a significant predictor of trochlear width (R² = 0.664, p < 0.001).
Excellent intraobserver reliability for all measurements.

Conclusions:

DH morphology shows clear sex differences in size, but no significant side differences at the group level.
Coordinated geometric scaling exists across humeral measurements, with EPW as a reliable global scale.
The axis-constrained framework offers potential for improved CT-based analyses, reconstruction, and implant design.