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A nonlinear viscoelastic 3D bellows microspring fabricated with two-photon polymerization
Harris J Hall1, Tyler Grunzke2, Samuel Campbell3
1Air Force Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, 45433, OH, Dayton, US. Harris.Hall.3@us.af.mil.
Scientific Reports
|July 7, 2026
Summary
Two-photon polymerization (TPP) 3D printing of microscale springs shows nonlinear stiffness and creep. Material aging significantly alters spring behavior over time, highlighting the need for nonlinear material property research.
Area of Science:
- Materials Science
- Mechanical Engineering
- Nanotechnology
Background:
- Two-photon polymerization (TPP) 3D printing is widely used for micro/nanoscale structures.
- Practical challenges like nonlinear behavior and material aging hinder device maturation.
Purpose of the Study:
- To investigate the mechanical properties of TPP-fabricated microscale springs.
- To analyze the effects of aging on spring performance.
Main Methods:
- Fabrication of cylindrical microscale bellows springs (100 μm diameter) using TPP 3D printing.
- Compression testing to evaluate stiffness profiles.
- Long-term (9-10 months) open-air exposure to assess aging effects.
- Creep and cyclic loading tests to analyze viscoelastic behavior.
Main Results:
- Springs exhibited nonlinear stiffness with distinct linear and nonlinear regions.
- Significant changes in stiffness were observed after 9-10 months of air exposure.
- Consistent creep response (-143 nN/nm) observed under constant loads, increasing with load and decreasing with dwell time.
- Viscoelastic behavior and increasing loss angle with frequency were evident under cyclic loading.
Conclusions:
- The study reveals significant nonlinearities and aging effects in TPP-fabricated microsprings.
- These findings underscore the importance of considering nonlinear material properties in TPP resist development.
- Further research into material aging and nonlinear behavior is crucial for advancing TPP applications.
