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Gastrointestinal Parasites of Free-Ranging Rhesus Macaques (Macaca mulatta) in Kathmandu: A One Health Perspective on

Yashoda Khadka1, Ananta Dahal1, Sujan Adhikari1

  • 1Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Animal Science, Veterinary Science and Fisheries, Agriculture and Forestry University, Rampur, Nepal.

Veterinary Medicine and Science
|July 8, 2026
PubMed
Abstract

Insights

Gastrointestinal parasites, including potentially zoonotic types, are common in urban rhesus macaques at Nepal

Area of Science:

  • Veterinary Parasitology
  • One Health
  • Primate Health

Background:

  • Urbanization increases human-non-human primate contact, creating shared environmental health risks, especially at religious sites.
  • Close cultural interactions at religious sites heighten disease transmission potential between humans and macaques.
  • Rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) in urban settings may harbor pathogens transmissible to humans.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the prevalence and diversity of gastrointestinal parasites in free-ranging rhesus macaques.
  • To assess parasite burden at two UNESCO World Heritage sites in Kathmandu, Nepal.
  • To identify potential zoonotic parasite risks at the human-macaque interface.

Main Methods:

  • Non-invasive fecal sample collection from rhesus macaques (N=105) at Pashupatinath Temple and Swayambhunath Stupa.
  • Utilized standard coprological techniques: zinc sulphate flotation and sedimentation for microscopic analysis.
  • Opportunistic cross-sectional study conducted in July-August 2024.

Main Results:

  • High overall prevalence of gastrointestinal parasites (77.1%) identified in macaques.
  • Nine parasite genera detected, including four protozoans and five helminths, with eight having zoonotic potential.
  • Most common parasites were Entamoeba sp. (37.1%), Strongyle-type eggs (25.7%), and Strongyloides sp. (20.0%); double infections were frequent (41.0%).

Conclusions:

  • High prevalence of potentially zoonotic parasites in macaques indicates significant environmental contamination and shared human-primate exposure risk.
  • Urgent need for integrated sanitation, public awareness, and management strategies.
  • A One Health approach is crucial for mitigating risks at the human-macaque interface in popular tourist destinations.
Keywords:
Macaca mulattaOne Healthenvironmental contaminationgastrointestinal parasitesurban‐wildlife interface

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