Thermophilic spore-forming bacteria biofilms in foods and beverages: Current knowledge, industrial risks, and...

Biofilms are microbial communities embedded in a matrix of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) that protect cells and spores from heat, acidity, and sanitizing agents. In the food and beverage industry, thermophilic spore-forming bacteria, such as Bacillus, Geobacillus, and Alicyclobacillus, represent a significant challenge because their spores survive pasteurization, adhere to industrial surfaces, and form persistent biofilms. This ability promotes microbial persistence, product recontamination, and food spoilage, often leading to the production of undesirable compounds such as guaiacol in fruit juices and enzymatic degradation in dairy products. Modern molecular and analytical techniques have increasingly replaced traditional culture-based methods for detecting these microorganisms in food systems. However, knowledge regarding biofilm formation by thermophilic spore-forming bacteria remains limited compared with that of pathogenic biofilm producers, such as Salmonella and Listeria monocytogenes. This review synthesizes current knowledge on the ecology, physiology, and biofilm-forming mechanisms of thermophilic spore-forming bacteria in foods and beverages. It also examines their occurrence in food processing environments, available detection approaches, and emerging prevention and control strategies. Furthermore, this review identifies critical knowledge gaps regarding the persistence of thermophilic spore-former biofilms in industrial environments and highlights promising research directions for their effective control. By integrating current evidence and emerging concerns, this work provides a scientific framework to guide future research and improve biofilm management strategies in the food and beverage industry.