Metabolic adaptations of extremophiles and their applications in environmental biotechnology

Extremophiles are microorganisms capable of surviving and thriving under extreme environmental conditions, such as high or low temperatures, extreme pH, elevated pressure or high salinity. These organisms have evolved specialized physiological and biochemical adaptations that enable them to metabolize toxic compounds that are typically lethal to microorganisms living in moderate habitats. Owing to their unique metabolic and enzymatic capabilities, extremophiles are promising candidates for degradation of hazardous pollutants in environments where other microorganisms often exhibit limited activity. This review focuses on the metabolic adaptations and current applications of extremophiles in sustainable environmental biotechnology. In contrast to other reviews focusing primarily on extremozymes or individual remediation strategies, we integrate current knowledge about extremophile physiology with emerging applications fo the removal of plastics, toxic metals (TMs) and petroleum-derived compounds, and we describe the molecular mechanisms employed by extremophiles in these processes. We also discuss current limitations and future research directions in biotechnologies based on extremophiles.