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Related Concept Videos

Type II Diabetes I: Introduction01:26

Type II Diabetes I: Introduction

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance, in which target tissues such as the liver, muscle, and adipose tissue respond poorly to insulin. It is also associated with inadequate compensatory insulin secretion, where pancreatic β-cells fail to produce sufficient insulin. Together, these abnormalities lead to persistent hyperglycemia.EtiologyT2DM develops through a complex interaction of genetic predisposition and environmental or...
Type II Diabetes II: Pathophysiology01:24

Type II Diabetes II: Pathophysiology

PathophysiologyType 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM ) is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and progressive pancreatic β-cell dysfunction, leading to impaired glucose homeostasis. It results from interactions among genetic predisposition, environmental factors, and metabolic stressors, such as overnutrition and a sedentary lifestyle.Insulin Resistance and Glucose DysregulationEarly T2DM involves insulin resistance in skeletal muscle, adipose tissue, and the liver.
Diabetes Mellitus: Type 2 and Gestational01:22

Diabetes Mellitus: Type 2 and Gestational

Type 2 diabetes, characterized by insulin resistance, arises when the insulin receptors on cells lose responsiveness to insulin, diminishing the cell's capacity to take up glucose, resulting in elevated blood glucose levels. To receive a diagnosis of Type 2 diabetes, a series of blood glucose tests are necessary to assess whether the blood glucose falls within normal parameters. If the result is out of the normal range, a patient may be diagnosed as prediabetic or diabetic, depending on the...
Pathophysiology of Diabetes01:20

Pathophysiology of Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycemia. The four categories of diabetes are type 1 diabetes, type 2 diabetes, other specific types of diabetes, and gestational diabetes.
Type 1 diabetes is characterized by autoimmune-mediated destruction of pancreatic β cells, with environmental factors potentially triggering this process in genetically susceptible individuals. Despite many not having a family history, certain genes increase susceptibility, suggesting a...
Type I Diabetes II: Pathophysiology01:26

Type I Diabetes II: Pathophysiology

Type 1 diabetes mellitus arises from an immune-mediated destruction of pancreatic β-cells, resulting in an absolute deficiency of insulin. This process develops in genetically susceptible individuals when autoimmunity, environmental exposures, and immunologic dysregulation converge to trigger a targeted attack on the insulin-producing cells of the pancreas. The β-cells are located within the islets of Langerhans and are essential for regulating blood glucose by facilitating cellular uptake of...
Diabetes Mellitus: Overview and Type I Subtype01:22

Diabetes Mellitus: Overview and Type I Subtype

Diabetes mellitus is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood glucose levels due to inadequate insulin production, insulin resistance, or both. The condition affects millions worldwide and can significantly impact their health and quality of life.
Type 1 diabetes is an autoimmune disease in which the immune system mistakenly attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. As a result, the body is unable to produce sufficient insulin, and individuals with...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 12, 2026

Development and Validation of a Methodology for Establishing Obese Rat Models with Typical Fatty Pancreas
03:07

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Published on: November 11, 2025

Sex differences in glucose-regulating neurohormonal pathways-potential impact for type 2 diabetes development.

Martin H Lundqvist1, Maria J Pereira1, Urban Wiklund2

  • 1Clinical Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Medical Sciences, Uppsala University, Uppsala University Hospital, Uppsala 751 85, Sweden.

Journal of the Endocrine Society
|July 11, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Men exhibit heightened counter-regulatory hormone responses, potentially increasing their type 2 diabetes risk. Central adiposity, not sex hormones, appears to explain these sex differences in hormone dynamics.

Keywords:
counter-regulatoryhyperglycemiahypoglycemiasexsex hormones

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Last Updated: Jul 12, 2026

Development and Validation of a Methodology for Establishing Obese Rat Models with Typical Fatty Pancreas
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10:35

Extracellular Glucose Depletion as an Indirect Measure of Glucose Uptake in Cells and Tissues Ex Vivo

Published on: April 6, 2022

Area of Science:

  • Endocrinology
  • Metabolic Health
  • Diabetes Research

Background:

  • Men have a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes (T2D) compared to women.
  • Understanding sex differences in hormonal regulation is crucial for explaining T2D risk disparities.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate sex differences in counter-regulatory hormone dynamics.
  • To determine the influence of sex hormones, menopausal status, and metabolic phenotypes on these differences.
  • To explore the link between hormone dynamics, insulin resistance, and T2D propensity.

Main Methods:

  • 22 men and 28 women (including postmenopausal) underwent clamp studies assessing counter-regulatory hormones and heart rate variability (HRV).
  • Fasting plasma samples were analyzed for sex hormones (testosterone, estradiol).
  • Multilinear regressions were used to identify predictors of neurohormonal responses.

Main Results:

  • Men showed higher glucagon, ACTH, cortisol, and GH responses during hypoglycemia compared to women.
  • Men exhibited greater sympathetic dominance and lower GH during normo- and hyperglycemia.
  • Central adiposity (waist-to-hip ratio) predicted hormonal responses, while sex hormones did not.
  • Postmenopausal women had lower GH and less favorable HRV than premenopausal women.

Conclusions:

  • Elevated glucose-dependent counter-regulatory hormonal responses in men may contribute to higher insulin resistance and T2D risk.
  • Central adiposity, rather than sex hormone profiles, partially explains observed sex differences in neurohormonal responses.
  • These findings highlight potential therapeutic targets for mitigating T2D risk in men.