Combined molecular fingerprint and descriptor features enable classical machine learning to match deep learning...

Molecular fingerprints and physicochemical descriptors encode complementary structural information, yet most Tox21 benchmarks evaluate only one representation at a time. This study examined whether integrating both closes the reported gap between classical and graph-based deep learning.

Six algorithms (Random Forest, XGBoost, LightGBM, SVM, MLP, Logistic Regression) were trained on a 3,131-dimensional feature vector combining 59 RDKit descriptors with ECFP4, ECFP6, and RDKit topological fingerprints (1,024 bits each), across 8,014 Tox21 compounds and 12 endpoints, evaluated under both stratified 5-fold cross-validation and a Bemis-Murcko scaffold split. Bootstrap resampling (n = 1,000) gave 95% confidence intervals.

Random Forest achieved the highest mean AUC-ROC of 0.846 (SD = 0.053) under stratified 5-fold cross-validation, with 10 of 12 endpoints exceeding 0.80. Under a Bemis-Murcko scaffold split matching the deep learning benchmark protocol, RF mean AUC was 0.839, at or slightly above the published aggregate means of AttentiveFP (0.829) and GROVER (0.831); because these benchmarks report only a single aggregate mean, comparison is aggregate-level only. Adding fingerprints to the descriptor-only baseline improved RF on 10 of 12 endpoints (maximum gain +0.028 on SR-ATAD5). A linear-kernel SVM (0.752) outperformed the originally reported RBF-kernel SVM (0.710), a kernel-calibration artifact; SVM remained the weakest baseline.

An integrated fingerprint-descriptor representation lets classical machine learning match published graph neural networks on Tox21 under matched scaffold-split evaluation, without specialized hardware, offering a reproducible, interpretable alternative for computational toxicology.