Granulomatous inflammation in lung and lymph node specimens: A molecularly enhanced pathology-based algorithm for...

Granulomatous inflammation is frequently encountered in lung and lymph node specimens and represents a diagnostic challenge because diverse infectious, immune-mediated, exposure-related, and neoplastic conditions may produce overlapping histologic patterns. Necrotizing, non-necrotizing, suppurative, foreign body-type, vasculitic, and malignancy-associated granulomas provide important diagnostic clues but are rarely disease-specific. Conventional pathology-based evaluation, including hematoxylin and eosin assessment, special stains, immunohistochemistry, culture, and serologic or antigen testing, remains the foundation of etiologic diagnosis. However, these methods may be limited by low organism burden, prior antimicrobial therapy, small tissue samples, formalin fixation, and broad etiologic heterogeneity. Molecular methods, including targeted polymerase chain reaction, 16S ribosomal RNA sequencing, internal transcribed spacer sequencing, targeted next-generation sequencing, and metagenomic next-generation sequencing, provide complementary tools for pathogen detection and species-level identification. This review summarizes the major histopathologic patterns and etiologic categories of granulomatous inflammation in lung and lymph node specimens and proposes a molecularly enhanced pathology-based algorithm for diagnostic workup. The goal is not to replace morphology with molecular testing, but to use histopathology to guide molecular assay selection and to interpret molecular findings within the appropriate tissue, microbiologic, radiologic, and clinical context.