Behavioural responses of Neotropical raptors to drone approaches to nests

We analysed behavioural responses of 27 Neotropical raptor species to 227 drone flights conducted near 119 active nests across eight countries. Reactions occurred in 81% of species and were strongly influenced by ecological traits, breeding stage, and drone flight characteristics. Defensive displays were the most frequent response, whereas attacks and escape behaviours were rare and associated with close approaches, prolonged flights, and overhead approaches. Smaller, more agile species tended to attack, whereas larger eagles usually avoided confrontation. Repeated exposures increased the probability of a reaction, suggesting sensitization rather than habituation. Responses intensified during incubation and brood-rearing, identifying these periods as critical periods for ethical and methodological caution. Our results provide a multi-species framework for assessing drone impacts on Neotropical raptors and define distance, approach, and timing thresholds to minimise disturbance. Incorporating behavioural ecology into flight planning will help ensure that drone-based monitoring remains an effective and non-invasive tool for raptor monitoring and conservation.