Delivery Systems for Therapeutic Genome Editing: Challenges, Innovations, and Future Perspectives

Therapeutic genome editing has advanced rapidly with the development of diverse programmable nucleases, from zinc-finger nucleases and transcription activator-like effector nucleases to clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-based systems such as base and prime editors. Despite these breakthroughs, clinical translation remains constrained by the challenge of achieving safe, efficient, and tissue-specific delivery. Viral vectors, particularly adeno-associated viruses, have enabled durable editing in selected organs but are limited by their restricted cargo capacity, immunogenicity, and complex manufacturing. Nonviral platforms, most notably ionizable lipid nanoparticles, have demonstrated remarkable efficacy for hepatic targets, with clinical trials reporting up to 93% protein knockdown after a single dose. An expanding set of emerging modalities, including virus-mimicking nanosystems, cell-derived extracellular vesicles, cell-penetrating peptides, and intelligent-responsive multifunctional scaffolds, further enriches the delivery toolbox by supporting transient expression and programmable targeting across diverse editors and tissues. Parallel advances in high-throughput barcoded screening and machine learning are accelerating vector optimization, while rational chemical modification of payloads improves in vivo stability and specificity. This review provides a comprehensive overview of current and emerging delivery systems for genome editing, highlighting key innovations, unresolved challenges, and interdisciplinary strategies poised to unlock broader therapeutic potential.