Seasonal Dynamics of Resource Availability and Human Presence Shape Habitat Use of Large Carnivores in Chad

Understanding how seasonal changes in resources and human activity influence large carnivore space use is critical for effective conservation, yet such information is scarce for Central African savanna ecosystems. This study used occupancy modelling with data from camera traps deployed during the dry and wet seasons in Zakouma National Park (NP), Chad, to assess seasonal patterns of large carnivore occurrence and their environmental drivers. Five large carnivore species were detected: lion, leopard, cheetah, spotted hyaena and striped hyaena. Prey availability emerged as the primary driver of carnivore space use in the dry season. Detections declined markedly in the wet season; occupancy remained similar across seasons for lions and leopards, whereas other species exhibited reduced occupancy in the wet season. Our results indicate that Zakouma NP functions as a critical refuge during the dry season, when anthropogenic pressure intensifies in community lands due to the movement of transhumant pastoralists. During the wet season, reduced human presence in the broader landscape, combined with decreasing prey availability and flooding that renders parts of Zakouma NP unsuitable, allows several species to expand their range beyond the park. Within the Greater Zakouma Ecosystem, these seasonal dynamics highlight the importance of landscape-level conservation approaches that account for seasonal shifts in resource availability and human land use to support large carnivore persistence.