Anti-Inflammatory Effect of Palmatine Chloride on Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated RAW 264.7 Mouse Macrophages via...

Palmatine chloride (berbericinine, C₂₁H₂₂ClNO₄) is a protoberberine alkaloid found in several plants, including Rhizoma Coptidis, Cortex Phellodendri, Rhizoma Corydalis, Guduchi (Tinospora cordifolia), and Tinospora sagittata roots. Palmatine chloride (PA) is known as an inhibitor of dopamine generation. However, its effect on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-related macrophage activation caused by endotoxin (lipopolysaccharide) is not yet well known. In this study, the effects of PA on pyroptotic responses of mouse macrophages (RAW 264.7) activated by endotoxin were investigated using Griess reagent assay for nitric oxide (NO) production, fluo-4 assay for cytosolic calcium release, dihydrorhodamine 123 assay for hydrogen peroxide production, multiple cytokine assay for cytokine production, real-time PCR for inflammatory gene transcriptions, and flow cytometry assay for p38 MAPK activation. Preliminary experiments using THP-1 human monocytic cells demonstrated that PA was not cytotoxic and significantly reduced basal NO production. Results revealed that PA significantly reduced excessive production levels of NO, hydrogen peroxide, pro-inflammatory cytokines (such as interleukin (IL)-6, CCL3 (MIP-1α), and CSF2 (GM-CSF)), and cytosolic calcium release in endotoxin-stimulated RAW 264.7, but significantly increased the production of anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. PA inhibited endotoxin-induced transcripts of Chop, Stat1, Fas, and c-Fos in activated RAW 264.7. It also decreased p38 MAPK phosphorylation and level of Fas in RAW 264.7 stimulated by endotoxin. To further interpret these findings, a network pharmacology-informed analysis based on large-scale literature mining was performed, supporting the multi-target regulatory role of PA in ER stress-related pathways. Briefly, PA exerts anti-inflammatory effects on endotoxin-stimulated RAW 264.7 via the calcium-CHOP pathway, consequently reducing endotoxin-induced production of pro-inflammatory mediators (NO, cytokines, etc.) and relieving ER stress-related pyroptotic cascade.