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Related Concept Videos

Leaky Scanning02:28

Leaky Scanning

During most eukaryotic translation processes, the small 40S ribosome subunit scans an mRNA from its 5' end until it encounters the first start AUG codon. The large 60S ribosomal subunit then joins the smaller one to initiate protein synthesis. The location of the translation initiation is largely determined by the nucleotides near the start codon as there may be multiple translation initiation sites present on the mRNA.  Marilyn Kozak discovered that the sequence RCCAUGG (where R stands for...
Inhibitors of Viral Protein Synthesis01:30

Inhibitors of Viral Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis is indispensable for viral replication, as viruses lack the cellular machinery required for this process and must hijack the host's translational apparatus. In response, host cells deploy a critical innate immune defense involving interferons, specialized cytokines that play a central role in inhibiting viral propagation.Upon viral detection, infected cells release interferons that bind to receptors on adjacent uninfected cells, activating the JAK-STAT signaling pathway and...
Microorganisms in Medicine and Therapeutics01:29

Microorganisms in Medicine and Therapeutics

Microorganisms play a fundamental role in vaccine development, gene therapy, and therapeutic production. Their biological properties are harnessed to advance medicine and public health. Beyond immunization, microorganisms contribute to gut health, antibiotic synthesis, and genetic disease treatment.Live Attenuated and Inactivated VaccinesLive attenuated vaccines, such as the measles, mumps, and rubella (MMR) vaccine, utilize weakened forms of pathogens to closely resemble natural infections.
Vaccines01:21

Vaccines

Vaccines are among the most effective tools in preventive medicine, designed to prepare the immune system to recognize and combat infectious agents. By introducing antigens—substances that the immune system identifies as foreign—vaccines stimulate an adaptive immune response that leads to immunological memory. This immunological memory enables the body to mount a faster and more effective response upon future exposures to the actual pathogen.Vaccines can be categorized based on the type of...
Initiation of Translation02:33

Initiation of Translation

Initiating translation is complex because it involves multiple molecules. Initiator tRNA, ribosomal subunits, and eukaryotic initiation factors (eIFs) are all required to assemble on the initiation codon of mRNA. This process consists of several steps that are mediated by different eIFs.
First, the initiator tRNA must be selected from the pool of elongator tRNAs by eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2). The initiator tRNA (Met-tRNAi) has conserved sequence elements including modified bases at...
Human Virome01:26

Human Virome

The human body harbors a vast and diverse viral community known as the human virome. The virome includes bacteriophages that infect bacteria, and eukaryotic viruses that infect human cells. Transient dietary and environmental viruses also contribute to this dynamic ecosystem. Estimates suggest the human body may contain on the order of 10¹³ viral particles, though abundance varies widely by body site and detection method.Comprehensive characterization of the virome has become possible only with...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Jul 16, 2026

Paramyxoviruses for Tumor-targeted Immunomodulation: Design and Evaluation Ex Vivo
12:42

Paramyxoviruses for Tumor-targeted Immunomodulation: Design and Evaluation Ex Vivo

Published on: January 7, 2019

Immune Mechanisms and Translational Study Design in Viral Vaccine Development.

Stephanie Lim1, Byron Martina1,2,3

  • 1Artemis Bioservices, Molengraasssingel 10, 2629 JD Delft, The Netherlands.

International Journal of Molecular Sciences
|July 15, 2026
PubMed
Summary

Developing effective viral vaccines requires understanding immune responses and using animal models wisely. Bridging preclinical findings to human outcomes with validated biomarkers is key to reducing clinical trial failures.

Keywords:
T cell immunityantibody effector functioncorrelates of protectionimmune mechanismstranslational modelsviral vaccine development

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Intranasal Administration of Recombinant Influenza Vaccines in Chimeric Mouse Models to Study Mucosal Immunity
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Intranasal Administration of Recombinant Influenza Vaccines in Chimeric Mouse Models to Study Mucosal Immunity

Published on: June 25, 2015

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Last Updated: Jul 16, 2026

Paramyxoviruses for Tumor-targeted Immunomodulation: Design and Evaluation Ex Vivo
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Paramyxoviruses for Tumor-targeted Immunomodulation: Design and Evaluation Ex Vivo

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Intranasal Administration of Recombinant Influenza Vaccines in Chimeric Mouse Models to Study Mucosal Immunity
10:39

Intranasal Administration of Recombinant Influenza Vaccines in Chimeric Mouse Models to Study Mucosal Immunity

Published on: June 25, 2015

Area of Science:

  • Immunology
  • Vaccinology
  • Translational Medicine

Background:

  • Viral vaccine development necessitates understanding protective immunity and linking preclinical data to human outcomes.
  • Animal models are crucial for assessing vaccine safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy, but their predictive value is context-dependent.
  • Identifying appropriate biomarkers is essential for translating animal study results to human clinical trials.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review viral vaccine-induced protection mechanisms, including innate and adaptive immunity.
  • To discuss reasons for clinical trial failures in vaccine development.
  • To explore strategies for improving the predictive value of preclinical models and endpoints.

Main Methods:

  • Examination of innate and adaptive immune mechanisms (B cell, antibody, Fc-mediated functions, T cell memory, CD8+ cytotoxic responses).
  • Classification of preclinical endpoints (human-counterpart, surrogate, comparative/mechanistic).
  • Analysis of influenza and COVID-19 vaccine development examples.

Main Results:

  • Preclinical endpoints can be categorized to better bridge animal and human data.
  • A combination of different animal models across various study phases can be employed.
  • Emerging technologies like systems serology, omics, and AI/ML offer potential for candidate prioritization.

Conclusions:

  • A mechanism-driven approach using a cascade of models paired with human-relevant immunological readouts can enhance preclinical interpretation.
  • Improved preclinical-to-clinical translation can reduce the risk of advancing non-viable vaccine candidates.
  • Standardization, validation, and cautious interpretation of new tools are vital for their successful application.