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Assessment of Airway, Skin Color, and Use of Accessory Muscles

Assessment of Airway, Skin Color, and Use of Accessory Muscles

A thorough assessment of respiratory health is paramount in clinical settings to identify and manage respiratory distress and ensure adequate oxygenation. This article elaborates on the critical aspects of respiratory evaluation, including airway assessment, skin color examination, and the observation of accessory muscle use, which are integral to effectively diagnosing and managing patients with respiratory conditions.
Introduction
The initial evaluation of a patient's respiratory system...

Chronic Pharyngitis

Chronic Pharyngitis

Chronic pharyngitis refers to persistent inflammation of the pharyngial mucosa.
Etiology
It often arises from persistent viral or bacterial infections affecting sinuses and tonsils.
Additional contributing factors include inadequate dental hygiene, mouth breathing, recurring tonsillitis, allergic rhinitis, laryngopharyngeal reflux, and exposure to smoke, chemicals, and other environmental pollutants. Allergic reactions to pollen, mold, and pet dander, chronic cough, excessive voice usage,...

Tonsillitis I: Introduction

Tonsillitis I: Introduction

Tonsillitis is inflammation of the tonsils, which are two lymphoid tissue masses at the back of the throat. This condition can cause discomfort and irritation in the throat.
Etiology
Three primary contributing factors have been identified.

Anatomy of Respiratory System I: Upper Respiratory Tract

Anatomy of Respiratory System I: Upper Respiratory Tract

The upper respiratory tract plays a vital role in the respiratory system, comprising several structures that facilitate air intake and prepare air for the lungs. It also serves as the first line of defense against pathogens and particles. This tract includes the nose and nasal cavity, the oral cavity, the paranasal sinuses, and the pharynx, each with specific functions and features.
Nose and nasal cavity
The nose and nasal cavity represent the main external openings of the respiratory tract.

Physical Assessment of the Respiratory Tract I: Health History

Physical Assessment of the Respiratory Tract I: Health History

Physical assessment of the respiratory tract is critical to patient care. It allows healthcare professionals to identify and manage various respiratory conditions. The process involves a combination of subjective and objective data collection.
Subjective Data
Subjective data provides vital information about the patient's health history and symptoms. This data is typically collected through interviews in which patients describe their experiences, symptoms, and concerns.
Health history and key...

Other Pulmonary Disorders

Other Pulmonary Disorders

Respiratory disorders encompass a range of conditions with varying levels of severity. Asthma, marked by chronic airway inflammation and hypersensitivity, is one such condition. It can lead to airway obstruction due to factors like bronchial spasms, mucosal edema, increased mucus secretion, or epithelial damage. Asthma triggers are diverse, ranging from allergens to emotional upset, and treatment focuses on both immediate relief through bronchodilators and long-term inflammation suppression.

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Updated: Jul 16, 2026

Isolation of Tonsillar Mononuclear Cells to Study Ex Vivo Innate Immune Responses in a Human Mucosal Lymphoid Tissue

Isolation of Tonsillar Mononuclear Cells to Study Ex Vivo Innate Immune Responses in a Human Mucosal Lymphoid Tissue

Published on: June 14, 2020

Paediatric Sleep-Disordered Breathing: Pharyngeal Airway and Lymphoid Tissues in Risk Assessment.

Sandra Yi Cheng Chee¹, Lynn Huiting Koh², Kelvin Weng Chiong Foong³

¹Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, National University of Singapore, 9 Lower Kent Ridge Rd, Singapore 119085, Singapore.

Journal of Clinical Medicine

|July 15, 2026

Summary

Paediatric orthodontic patients in Singapore show high rates of adenotonsillar hypertrophy, a risk factor for sleep-disordered breathing (SDB). This study provides crucial cephalometric norms for identifying at-risk children needing SDB evaluation.

Keywords:

cephalometry craniofacial abnormalities obstructive sleep apnea orthodontics sleep-disordered breathing upper airway

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Isolation of Tonsillar Mononuclear Cells to Study Ex Vivo Innate Immune Responses in a Human Mucosal Lymphoid Tissue

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Published on: June 14, 2020

Image Acquisition using Portable Sonography for Emergency Airway Management

Image Acquisition using Portable Sonography for Emergency Airway Management

Published on: September 28, 2022

Area of Science:

Orthodontics
Paediatric Dentistry
Sleep Medicine

Background:

Paediatric sleep-disordered breathing (SDB) is linked to upper airway constriction and craniofacial variations.
Population-specific cephalometric data are lacking for Asian children, hindering SDB risk assessment.
This study addresses the need for normative data in a Singaporean paediatric orthodontic cohort.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate upper airway structure and lymphoid tissue hypertrophy in paediatric orthodontic patients.
To establish cephalometric dimensions for pharyngeal airway, skeletal, dental, and soft tissues.
To determine adenotonsillar hypertrophy prevalence and its association with demographic and skeletal factors.

Main Methods:

Retrospective analysis of lateral cephalograms from 404 children (aged 7-11 years) in Singapore.
Standardized cephalometric measurements assessed airway, skeletal, dental, and soft tissue parameters.
Comparisons made across demographic (age, gender, ancestry) and skeletal groups.

Main Results:

Significant differences in airway variables were observed based on gender, age, and skeletal patterns.
Adenotonsillar hypertrophy was prevalent (92.3%), with combined adenotonsillar hypertrophy in 49.5% and isolated tonsillar hypertrophy in 36.6%.
Younger, male, Chinese, Class I/II, and increased mandibular plane angle patients showed SDB anatomical risk indicators.

Conclusions:

Cephalometric norms for paediatric orthodontic patients in Singapore were established.
High prevalence of adenotonsillar and isolated tonsillar hypertrophy noted.
Population-specific data aid in identifying children potentially benefiting from SDB evaluation.