Advances in clinical examination techniques for allergic rhinitis: a review from traditional testing to precision...

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is an IgE-mediated, non-infectious inflammatory disorder of the nasal mucosa, and accurate diagnosis is important for individualized treatment. Over the past decade, diagnostic strategies for AR have evolved substantially from conventional methods, such as skin prick testing and serum-specific IgE testing, toward advanced approaches, including molecular allergen diagnostics, biomarker profiling, functional imaging, and artificial intelligence-assisted assessment. This review provides a systematic overview of these developments by summarizing the underlying principles, clinical utility, strengths, and limitations of each method. It also discusses the integration of multi-omics and digital health technologies, which have the potential to support truly precise and individualized diagnostics. By critically reviewing current strategies and future research directions, this article aims to help clinicians optimize patient management and promote further development in the field of AR diagnostics.