Perspective: Hormones and immune development: bidirectional regulation between thyroid hormones and the immune system

The immune system operates within a dynamic physiological environment shaped by systemic regulatory signals, among which endocrine factors are increasingly recognized as important modulators of immune function. Although thyroid hormones are well known for their roles in metabolism and development, their contribution to adaptive immunity, particularly in regulating T cell responses, remains incompletely understood. Emerging evidence suggests that thyroid-immune interactions are context-dependent across physiological and pathological conditions. In this Perspective, we propose that thyroid hormone signaling acts as a systemic regulator of T cell responses, integrating endocrine, immune, and metabolic cues to fine-tune immune activity. Mechanistically, this regulation involves thyroid hormone receptor-mediated pathways, interactions with cytokine networks, and immunometabolic programs that influence T cell differentiation and function. Clinically, thyroid dysfunction is associated with altered immune tolerance, autoimmune disease progression, and broader immune-related outcomes. Despite increasing interest in endocrine-immune crosstalk, current models remain fragmented. Future studies integrating longitudinal and multi-omics approaches are needed to better define thyroid-immune regulation and identify potential therapeutic targets.