Advanced Bio-Membrane Technologies for Water Treatment: Mechanisms, Challenges, and Future Prospects-A Comprehensive...

Bio-membrane technologies are emerging as promising solutions for sustainable water and wastewater treatment; however, their practical implementation remains constrained by fouling, limited long-term stability, and performance degradation under real operating conditions. This review critically evaluates recent advances in bio-functionalized membrane systems, focusing on the interplay between biological activity, membrane structure, and transport mechanisms. Key separation pathways, including bio-affinity interactions, enzymatic degradation, and coupled diffusion-reaction processes, are analyzed in relation to membrane morphology and surface chemistry. Advanced fabrication techniques such as electrospinning, layer-by-layer assembly, and 3D printing are assessed in terms of performance enhancement and scalability limitations. Major challenges including biofouling, biological instability, and material degradation are critically discussed alongside mitigation strategies such as surface functionalization and enzyme immobilization. The integration of artificial intelligence and IoT-based monitoring is also evaluated, although most applications remain at early development stages. Overall, this review identifies key research gaps and outlines future directions toward scalable, robust, and sustainable bio-membrane technologies.