From dysbiotic gut to malodorous mouth: targeting microbial metabolism for gastrointestinal type halitosis

This article reviews the microbiological mechanisms of halitosis, the oral-gut axis, the role of the gut microbiome, related metabolic pathways, and their associations with gastrointestinal diseases, and explores intervention strategies based on microbial regulation. Halitosis is primarily caused by volatile sulfur compounds produced by oral microorganisms, especially gram-negative anaerobic bacteria, and volatile organic compounds in most extraoral etiologies. Studies have found that intestinal microbial dysregulation can affect the composition of oral flora through the oral-gut axis and aggravate bad breath. Gastrointestinal diseases, such as gastroesophageal reflux disease,Helicobacter pyloriinfection, ulcerative colitis and irritable bowel syndrome can directly or indirectly promote the occurrence of bad breath by changing the intestinal microenvironment and microbial metabolic pathways, such as protein spoilage or short-chain fatty acids imbalance, etc. For microbial interventions, traditional Chinese medicine can not only systemically regulate the oral-gut axis balance, but also effectively alleviate bad breath by targeting sterilization and inhibiting the metabolic activity of pathogenic bacteria. This review focuses on elucidating the complex links between halitosis and the gut microbiome, its metabolic pathways, and gastrointestinal diseases, emphasizing the key role of microbial metabolites in pathological mechanisms. It reveals the importance of the oral-gut axis in systemic health and provides a rationale for developing personalized halitosis management strategies based on microbiome regulation.