Related Experiment Video
Updated: Jul 17, 2026
Voxel Printing Anatomy: Design and Fabrication of Realistic, Presurgical Planning Models through Bitmap Printing
Published on: February 9, 2022
A Systematic Review of Three-Dimensional Printing in Medical Education: Educational Impact and Methodological Quality
Amir Mohammad Salehi1, Shayan Bahadivand Chegini2, Fatemeh Esmaeili2
1Fetal and Pediatric Cardiovascular Research Center, Children's Medical Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
Background:
Access to human tissue for medical education is becoming increasingly limited due to ethical, legal, and financial challenges. In this context, three-dimensional (3D) printing has emerged as a promising alternative, yet its educational impact requires systematic evaluation. This review assessed the effectiveness and methodological quality of 3D printed models (3DPMs) in medical education.
Methods:
A systematic review was conducted following PRISMA guidelines. PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus were searched through December 2024 for intervention studies (randomized controlled trials, single-group designs, non-randomized comparisons) employing 3DPMs among medical students, residents, or physicians. Quality was appraised using the Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument (MERSQI), and educational outcomes were categorized by Kirkpatrick levels.
Results:
Sixty-seven studies (5,329 participants) were included. At Kirkpatrick Level 1 (Reaction), 71.6% reported high learner satisfaction; 85.1% demonstrated significant knowledge/skill improvements (Level 2), and 56.7% observed concurrent gains. Only two studies assessed behavioural change (Level 3), and none evaluated patient or healthcare outcomes. The mean MERSQI score was 12.01 ± 1.95, indicating predominantly moderate quality; 69.8% were randomized trials. Fused deposition modeling was the most common printing technology, and the heart was the most frequently printed organ. Cognitive strategies underpinned nearly all interventions.
Conclusions:
3DPMs consistently enhance satisfaction and knowledge in medical education, and there is growing evidence of skill transfer. However, higher-level behavioral and patient outcomes remain largely unexplored, and the quality of existing studies is predominantly moderate. Future research should focus on advanced Kirkpatrick levels and employ more rigorous designs to fully validate the educational benefits.
