Nanostructured surfaces for enveloped virus inactivation: mechanisms and fabrication strategies

Enveloped viruses, owing to the intrinsic sensitivity of their lipid envelopes to physical perturbations, have attracted increasing attention in the field of antiviral surface engineering. Compared with conventional chemical-based strategies, nanostructured surfaces can inactivate viruses through interfacial physical interactions without the need for continuous external stimuli. This review summarizes the primary mechanisms underlying nanostructure-induced viral inactivation, including mechanical piercing, stretching-induced rupture, and array-induced synergistic effects. Among these, membrane stretching and localized stress concentration arising from multivalent contact are identified as the dominant mechanisms. Key factors influencing antiviral performance, such as structural spacing, tip geometry, and virus size, are further discussed. In addition, common fabrication approaches, including etching, template-assisted replication, and plasma-based techniques, are reviewed. The contributions of surface composition to antiviral performance are also highlighted, with emphasis on the synergistic effects between nanostructured features and functional materials. Finally, current challenges related to mechanistic understanding, structure-activity relationships, and practical implementation are highlighted, providing insights for the rational design of antiviral surfaces.