Metal(loid) Occurrence, Possible Source Patterns, and Screening-Level Human Health Risk in Dried Fish from Thailand

Metal(loid)s are contaminants frequently detected in processed foods. This study investigated contamination of metal(loid)s, including arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, manganese, nickel, and zinc, in 8 types of dried fish obtained from major distribution sources supplying products nationwide in Thailand. In addition, relationships among metal(loid)s were examined to interpret possible source patterns. A screening-level health risk assessment was conducted using deterministic methods based on United States Environmental Protection Agency methodology and probabilistic approaches employing Monte Carlo simulation. Maximum allowable ingestion rates for populations in 9 regions of Thailand were also estimated. The mean concentrations of metal(loid)s followed the order: copper > zinc > nickel > manganese > arsenic > chromium > cadmium. Arsenic, copper, and manganese exceeded selected reference standards. Statistical analysis suggested that contamination may be associated with aquatic environments and processing practices. Deterministic risk assessment based on Hazard Index and Total Carcinogenic Risk indicated that all population groups were estimated to exceed acceptable thresholds for non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic effects at the screening level. In several regions, consumption rates exceeded maximum allowable ingestion levels, potentially increasing health risks, particularly for arsenic, copper, chromium, and nickel under conservative assumptions. Probabilistic assessment showed that high-exposure estimates represented by the 95th percentile were likely to exceed acceptable thresholds for both non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic effects across all regions. These findings highlight the need for coordinated risk mitigation strategies across the dried fish production chain to reduce potential dietary exposure to metal(loid)s and support food safety management.