Reassessing Factor Structure of the Beck Hopelessness Scale: A Meta‑Analytic Confirmatory Factor Analysis

Hopelessness is conceptualized as a cognitive schema characterized by negative expectations regarding the future. It is linked to various psychopathological conditions, including depression, suicide, and schizophrenia. Consequently, the assessment of hopelessness has become a crucial element in both clinical practice and research. The Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS) is the most extensively used instrument for measuring hopelessness and has been the focus of substantial research across diverse samples over many years. However, discussions on the factor structure of the scale continue. The present study investigated the factor structure of the BHS through a meta-analytic confirmatory factor analysis and synthesized the findings from the literature. The study included 52 samples (N = 35,628) derived from 36 studies that provided factor loadings from the exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. The results indicated that among the models examined for the BHS, the positive-negative bifactor model demonstrated the best fit to the data. Furthermore, the measurement invariance of this model was examined across age, gender composition, language, cultural orientation, and clinical status. Measurement invariance was not supported across these groups, suggesting that the latent structure of the BHS may vary according to key demographic, linguistic, cultural, and clinical status.