Microplastic contamination, characteristics, and children's exposure in urban sand and poured-rubber playgrounds in...

Playing in playgrounds can increase children's exposure to microplastics (MPs), with levels potentially varying between playground surface materials. This study provides the first comprehensive assessment of 5-1000 µm MP contamination and associated children's exposure in urban rubber and sand playgrounds across Korea. MPs of 20-1000 µm were quantified by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) at 515 ± 401 and 349 ± 245p g^-1, followed by measurement of 5-20 µm MPs by pyrolysis gas chromatography mass spectrometry (Py-GC/MS) at 0.12 ± 0.05 and 0.08 ± 0.04 mg g^-1 in rubber and sand playgrounds, respectively. Polyethylene, polypropylene, and polyethylene terephthalate dominated, with 20-100 µm fragments representing the most abundant size fraction. MP levels in playgrounds were comparable to road dust and were higher than those in beach sand. Screening-level combined ingestion and inhalation exposure to 5-1000 µm MPs was estimated at 2.0 × 10^-3 mg kg^-1 day^-1 in rubber playgrounds and 3.1 × 10^-3 mg kg^-1 day^-1 in sand playgrounds. A significant positive relationship was observed between MP concentrations and sand playground lifespan, while segmented regression analysis identified a potential breakpoint at ∼ 16 years, after which playgrounds showed higher average MP concentrations. These findings highlight playgrounds as potential outdoor exposure pathways for children and emphasize the need for greater attention to urban older sand playgrounds in future research and environmental management strategies.