A Privacy-Preserving Markov Chain-Based Framework for Robust Motor Imagery EEG Classification in Brain-Computer...

Accurate classification of motor imagery (MI)-based electroencephalogram (EEG) signals is often challenged by signal non-stationarity, subject-specific variability, and privacy concerns associated with sharing raw neural data. To address these challenges, this study proposes a hybrid Markov chain-spatial statistical (MCSS) machine learning framework for privacy-preserving MI-EEG classification. Spatially filtered EEG signals were discretised into six symbolic amplitude states representing progressively increasing signal intensities. These symbolic sequences were modelled as stochastic processes, from which transition probability matrices (TPMs) were constructed as the primary feature representation. This TPM-based abstraction provides a non-invertible and privacy-friendly feature space, substantially reducing the ability to reconstruct the original neural waveform. To enhance discriminative performance, the Markov features were combined with seven statistical descriptors. The framework was evaluated using three machine learning algorithms on the brain-computer interface (BCI) Competition III Datasets IVa and IVb. The proposed MCSS + support vector machine framework achieved consistently high classification accuracy (>98%) across all subjects, demonstrating strong robustness and cross-subject stability. Privacy robustness was further validated through empirical threat-model evaluation, where membership inference attacks remained close to chance level, and feature inversion attacks showed low reconstruction similarity. Overall, the framework provides an accurate, computationally efficient, and privacy-preserving solution for scalable BCI development.