Endocrine disrupting chemicals and their effects on mosquito vectors of infectious diseases: A narrative review

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs), including bisphenols, phthalates, polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), household antimicrobials such as triclosan, and insect growth regulators (IGRs) that mimic juvenile hormones, are increasingly present in mosquito larval habitats. In Aedes, Culex, and Anopheles, sublethal exposures may alter endocrine pathways (juvenile hormone, ecdysteroids, insulin/IGF-TOR), life history traits (developmental time, fecundity, longevity), midgut physiology, and immune function, with potential consequences for vector competence. Recent evidence has shown that bisphenol A (BPA) modulates the development and antiviral immunity of Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. In Culex quinquefasciatus, BPA accelerates development through ecdysteroid signaling, PFAS reduce survival and alter larval behavior, and IGRs, such as pyriproxyfen and methoprene, although used as vector control tools, exert collateral endocrine effects on reproduction and adult longevity. In this review, we synthesize the current knowledge, discuss the mechanistic insights, highlight the ecological relevance, and identify the major research gaps.