Three-dimensional bioprinted organoids: advances and clinical translation

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting enables the precise fabrication of complex tissue constructs by depositing living cells, biomaterials, and bioactive factors in a spatially controlled manner. Concurrently, organoids-self-organizing 3D cellular structures that recapitulate key aspects of organ architecture and function-have revolutionized biomedical research by providing physiologically relevant models for disease modeling, drug screening, and regenerative medicine. The convergence of 3D bioprinting and organoid technology represents a significant advancement, offering new opportunities for personalized medicine and tissue engineering. This review examines the current state of 3D bioprinted organoids, encompassing bioprinting techniques, bio-ink development, and diverse clinical applications spanning oncology (patient-derived tumor organoids for predicting therapy response in selected gastrointestinal cancers), regenerative medicine (bioprinted bone, cartilage, cardiac, and skin constructs), drug discovery (hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity screening platforms), and personalized therapeutics. We discuss technological advances supporting translational development, while distinguishing clinically validated patient-derived tumor organoid evidence from preclinical and proof-of-concept regenerative applications, and critically analyze the challenges that must be addressed for widespread clinical adoption. Finally, we provide perspectives on future directions, including the integration of artificial intelligence, multiorganoid systems, and regulatory pathways that will shape the next generation of 3D bioprinted organoids for clinical use.